Author Archives: Garry Rodgers

About Garry Rodgers

After three decades as a Royal Canadian Mounted Police homicide detective and British Columbia coroner, International Best Selling author and blogger Garry Rodgers has an expertise in death and the craft of writing on it. Now retired, he wants to provoke your thoughts about death and help authors give life to their words.

NITROGEN HYPOXIA EXECUTIONS — A FIRST BY ALABAMA

On January 25, 2024, the State of Alabama executed prisoner Kenneth Eugene Smith. Inmate Smith, age 58, had been convicted in the 1988 contract murder of a mother of two and was sentenced to die. After three decades on Death Row, he was legally killed by a controversial and unique method. Kenneth Smith became the first person in America to be suffocated with nitrogen gas.

This new and previously untested execution process is called nitrogen hypoxia. Nitrogen makes up the abundance of our atmosphere and, when mixed with oxygen, is vital for human life. Hypoxia means “a state in which oxygen is not available in sufficient amounts at the tissue level to maintain adequate homeostasis”. In other words, to support life.

Quite simply, Smith was strapped to a gurney inside the execution chamber at Holman Correctional Facility near Atmore, Alabama. A gas mask was placed over his face and, instead of administering oxygen, Smith was delivered pure nitrogen. According to Alabama Attorney General Steve Marshall, “It is the most painless and humane method of execution known to man.”

Alabama is one of three U. S. States to approve nitrogen hypoxia executions—also endorsed by Mississippi and Oklahoma—however, Alabama is the first jurisdiction to exercise the process. It had never been done before in the civilized world. As United States Supreme Court Justice Sonia Sotomayor put it, “It appears Mister Smith is being used as a guinea pig.”

Before examining how this nouveau gassing technique works, let’s review who Smith was, the crime he committed, the general state of capital punishment in America, and why this was the second time the State of Alabama tried to physically execute Kenneth Smith, having failed in an earlier attempt at lethal injection.

Kenneth (Kenny) Smith was born on July 4, 1965. He grew up in Alabama and had an unremarkable past—up to the point where he and John Forrest Parker were recruited by Billy Gray Williams to kill 45-year-old Elizabeth Sennett in Colbert County. Mrs. Sennett was married to the Reverend Charles Sennett Sr. who was the pastor to Billy Williams. Rev. Sennett was in dire financial straits, so he took out a life insurance policy on his wife and conspired with Williams to murder Elizabeth and collect the money.

Billy Williams, being an entrepreneurial man, turned around and subcontracted the job to Parker and Kenny Smith. They were each paid $1,000 to repeatedly stab Elizabeth Sennett in her home, which they did. Somehow, a Crimestoppers caller ratted them out and it led the police to arrest them and come looking for Williams and the Reverend. Sennett, knowing the gig was up, confessed to his remaining family. Then he went out to his truck and shot himself dead in the head.

Parker and Smith were tried for first-degree murder, were convicted, and both were sentenced to death. Parker was executed by lethal injection in 2010, but Smith managed to get a new trial. He was convicted a second time and, again, given the death decree. Billy Williams, by the way, got life without parole for conspiracy to commit murder and died in jail from natural causes.

At 7:45 pm on November 17, 2022, Kenneth Smith had run out of appeals and nearly out of time. He was escorted to the execution chamber at the Holman Facility and strapped onto the gurney. A last-minute legal glitch stopped the lethal injection procedure and Smith lay on the table until 10:20 when the U.S. Supreme Court gave the go-ahead.

For the next hour, the execution team vainly searched for a vein in Smith’s arms to insert the catheter. As a last resort, they placed Smith upright in an inverted crucifix position hoping the upside-down method’s gravity pressure would balloon a blood vessel. Approaching midnight, when the death warrant was about to expire, prison officials called off the execution and Smith survived on borrowed time.

This was the third botched execution in a row at Holman. This trio of tries caused the state governor to order a review of the execution models available to Alabama—lethal injection and electrocution. The review returned with a creative suggestion. Nitrogen hypoxia. The state rushed through a bill, and the suffocation death through nitrogen hypoxia execution option was made legal.

Kenneth Smith had a choice for round two. He elected to try out the nitrogen. After all, his first experience with intravenous lethal injection didn’t go well. Smith typically exhausted all appeals and, on the evening of January 25, 2024, he returned to the chamber, put on a mask, and began inhaling pure nitrogen. According to the prison press release, Smith went unconscious after two minutes and was declared dead after twenty-two. The prison release assured, “It is the most painless and humane method of execution known to man.”

—   —  —

If you’ve been following Dyingwords for a while, you’ve seen I’ve progressively formed a partnership with artificial intelligence. I use AI daily as a research tool and, to some degree, as a writing aid. I make no apologies for this—I willingly embrace new technology and endorse the saying, “Luddites never win.” With that, let me turn to my learned friend, ChatGPT3.5, and discuss nitrogen hypoxia.

Me: Please explain what happens to the human body when oxygen is removed from the air supply and is replaced by pure nitrogen.

ChatGPT: The air we breathe is primarily composed of nitrogen (about 78%), oxygen (about 21%), and trace amounts of other gases, including carbon dioxide. When oxygen is removed from the air supply and replaced by nitrogen, several physiological effects occur, leading to a condition known as hypoxia.

  1. Reduced Oxygen Levels (Hypoxia): Oxygen is essential for various physiological processes, especially cellular respiration, where cells use oxygen to produce energy. When oxygen levels decrease, the body enters a state of hypoxia. This can lead to a cascade of effects on different organs and systems.
  2. Respiratory Effects: Initially, the respiratory system attempts to compensate by increasing the breathing rate. However, since nitrogen does not support cellular respiration, this compensatory mechanism is ultimately insufficient to maintain adequate oxygen levels.
  3. Circulatory Effects: The cardiovascular system responds to low oxygen levels by increasing the heart rate and redirecting blood flow to vital organs in an attempt to deliver the limited oxygen available more efficiently. This response, though, is not sustainable in the absence of sufficient oxygen.
  4. Central Nervous System Effects: The brain is highly sensitive to changes in oxygen levels. In hypoxic conditions, cognitive functions, decision-making, and coordination can be impaired. Severe hypoxia can lead to loss of consciousness.
  5. Cellular Damage: Prolonged exposure to low oxygen levels can lead to cellular damage and, eventually, cell death. This can have widespread effects on tissues and organs throughout the body.
  6. Hypoxia Symptoms: Symptoms of hypoxia include dizziness, shortness of breath, confusion, rapid heartbeat, and, in extreme cases, loss of consciousness. The severity of symptoms depends on the degree and duration of oxygen deprivation.

It’s important to note that replacing oxygen with nitrogen in the air is a highly dangerous scenario and is not encountered in normal, everyday situations. In the atmosphere, oxygen and nitrogen coexist in their natural proportions. Altering these proportions, such as by removing oxygen, can have severe and life-threatening consequences. In practical terms, ensuring a safe and sufficient oxygen supply is crucial for human health and survival.

Me: How long would it take for a human to die under these conditions?

ChatGPT: The time it takes for a human to die under conditions where oxygen is removed from the air supply and replaced by nitrogen depends on various factors, including the degree of oxygen deprivation, the individual’s health, and how quickly the body responds to the lack of oxygen. In such extreme conditions, death could occur relatively quickly, typically within a matter of minutes.

The human body can tolerate short periods of oxygen deprivation to some extent. However, severe hypoxia can lead to irreversible damage to vital organs, especially the brain, which is highly sensitive to changes in oxygen levels. Loss of consciousness can occur rapidly, followed by brain damage and ultimately death.

It’s important to note that intentionally creating an environment with little or no oxygen is extremely dangerous and can lead to immediate harm or death. Oxygen is essential for sustaining life and attempts to remove it from the air supply are not only life-threatening but also ethically and legally unacceptable. In real-world scenarios, maintaining a safe and sufficient oxygen supply is critical for human health and survival.

Me: Would this manner of death be painful?

ChatGPT: The manner of death described, where oxygen is removed from the air supply and replaced by nitrogen, can indeed be painful. The lack of oxygen, leading to hypoxia, triggers a cascade of physiological responses that can result in distressing symptoms and sensations. As the body struggles to obtain the necessary oxygen for vital functions, individuals may experience discomfort, anxiety, and a sense of suffocation.

Symptoms of hypoxia include dizziness, shortness of breath, confusion, rapid heartbeat, and in severe cases, loss of consciousness. The brain, being highly sensitive to oxygen levels, is particularly vulnerable, and the lack of oxygen can lead to cognitive impairment and disorientation. As the oxygen deprivation progresses, it can result in irreversible damage to the brain and other vital organs, contributing to a painful and potentially distressing experience.

It’s essential to emphasize that intentionally creating such conditions is both unethical and dangerous. In practical terms, efforts should focus on ensuring a safe and sufficient oxygen supply to maintain human health and well-being. If you or someone you know is experiencing distress or contemplating self-harm, it is important to seek help from mental health professionals or emergency services immediately.

Me: From a biological aspect, what is happening that causes death through nitrogen hypoxia?

ChatGPT: The process leading to death in a nitrogen hypoxia scenario involves the deprivation of oxygen, leading to a condition called hypoxia. Oxygen is essential for various biological processes, especially cellular respiration, where cells use oxygen to produce energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Here’s a breakdown of the biological aspects leading to death in a hypoxic environment:

Cellular Respiration Disruption

    • Oxygen is a crucial component of the electron transport chain, the final stage of cellular respiration.
    • In the absence of sufficient oxygen, cells cannot efficiently produce ATP, the energy currency of the cell.

ATP Depletion

    • ATP is required for various cellular activities, including maintaining cell membrane integrity, active transport, and other energy-dependent processes.
    • Without an adequate supply of ATP, cells cannot function properly.

Cellular Dysfunction

    • The lack of oxygen disrupts the normal functioning of cells, particularly in highly oxygen-dependent organs like the brain and heart.
    • Cellular dysfunction occurs as a result of energy depletion and the inability to carry out essential metabolic processes.

Brain Damage

    • The brain is particularly sensitive to changes in oxygen levels. Oxygen deprivation can lead to neuronal injury and dysfunction.
    • Cognitive impairment, loss of consciousness, and, eventually, irreversible brain damage can occur.

Organ Failure

    • As oxygen deprivation persists, multiple organs, including the heart, liver, and kidneys, start to fail due to the lack of energy and the disruption of cellular processes.

Cardiovascular Collapse

    • The cardiovascular system attempts to compensate for the low oxygen levels by increasing the heart rate.
    • Eventually, the cardiovascular system may fail due to the inability to provide adequate oxygenated blood to the organs.

Loss of Consciousness and Death

    • Loss of consciousness occurs as the brain is severely affected by the lack of oxygen.
    • If the hypoxia is prolonged and severe, irreversible damage to vital organs leads to death.

It’s important to emphasize that intentionally inducing hypoxia is a dangerous and unethical practice. The human body is highly dependent on oxygen, and any deliberate interference with this essential element can have severe and life-threatening consequences. In medical and ethical terms, ensuring the well-being of individuals and adhering to humane standards is of utmost importance.

—   —  —

As with many issues, Americans are deeply divided about capital punishment—the death penalty. Views vary depending on moral, religious, and legal points. One of the main arguments against executions is the chance of killing an innocent person. There certainly is something to that angle.

A fallback has always been Section 8 of the U.S. Constitution which addresses cruel and unusual punishment. But from a long-established high court ruling, there’s no requirement for a state to demonstrate that a method of execution is not “cruel and unusual”. The law holds that it’s up to the condemned inmate to show it’s torturous rather than the burden being on the state to show it’s not. So, basically, the state can rightfully make up anything it wants.

Twenty-one states allow capital punishment. Twenty-three do not. Six have their executions on pause. There are twenty-six death sentences scheduled to go ahead in 2024 across America, and there are over twenty-three hundred inmates warehoused on death rows. California, alone, has six hundred and sixty-five with Florida second at three hundred and thirteen.

Interestingly, three states have never executed a prisoner—Alaska, Hawaii, and Michigan. And it’s been decades since certain states stopped state-sponsored killings—Rhode Island in 1845, Wisconsin in 1851, Maine in 1885, North Dakota in 1905, Minnesota in 1906, and New Hampshire in 1939.

The states most recently carrying out executions are Georgia in 2020, Arizona in 2022, Mississippi in 2022, Missouri in 2023, Texas in 2023, and Oklahoma in 2023. And, of course, we have Alabama in 2024 administering nitrogen hypoxia to Kenny Smith.

The Smith execution had a huge international media coverage. There’s no doubt this precedent-setting event ushered in “an emergence of a wholly new method of capital punishment.” With all the painful problems associated with lethal injections… maybe nitrogen hypoxia really is the most painless and humane method of execution known to man.

SHRINK YOUR SURFACE AREA

Here’s a different take on what makes us feel so busy, stressed, and anxious. (Note: This is not a regular bi-weekly Dyingwords post and is not advertised on my mailing list. The original piece appeared in Farnam Street.) Periodically in 2024, I’m going to randomly re-publish pieces I come across that make me think and make me feel the thoughts should be shared with like-minded folks. If this makes any sense 🙂 Downsizing and saying “No” are two lifestyle choices I’ve made for this year, and shrinking my surface area is part of the plan.

As a rule, the larger your surface area, the more energy you have to expend maintaining it. Of course, when most of us think of surface area, we think of the area of a rectangle or how much grass we have to mow. But there is a surface area of life, and most of us never realize how much it consumes.

If you have one house, you have a relatively small surface area to maintain (depending on the age and size of the house, of course). If you buy another one, your surface area expands. But it doesn’t expand linearly – it expands slightly above that. It’s all the same work plus more.

Friends are another type of surface area. You have a finite amount of time to spend with friends before you die. The more friends you have, the less time you can spend with each one individually.

Money is another form of surface area. The more money you have, the more you have to keep track of different types of assets and investments.

When your surface area expands too much, you hire people to help you scale. Assistants, property managers, family offices, etc. They’re scaling you – but they’re also scaling the surface area of responsibility. This, of course, only masks the rapidly expanding surface area by abstracting it.

Beliefs are another type of surface area. The thing about surface area is that the more you have, the more you have to defend and maintain. The larger your surface area, the more you are burdened with mentally and physically.

If you think in terms of surface area, it’s easy to see why we are so anxious, stressed, and constantly behind. We feel like we need more time, but what we’re craving is more focus. What we need is a smaller surface area.

Your surface area becomes part of your identity. She’s the ‘busy person’ with her hand in every project. He’s the guy with four houses.

Competition can drive expansion. Most people want a bigger house to compete with someone else who has a nicer house. We are animals, after all. On a group level, this causes great benefits. On an individual level, it can cause unhappiness.

Most of the really happy people I know have a relatively small surface area. I know millionaires with two houses. Most of my close friends only have 4-5 close friends – everyone else is a friend in the loose sense of the word. Most of the productive people I know at work are focused on one or two things, not 5.

The way to maximize your enjoyment in life is to keep your surface area small. It’s a lot of work but if the happiest people I know are any indication, it’s a lot less work to keep it small than to maintain it when it’s large.

Content credit to Shane Parrish at Farnam Street.

THE REAL REASON FOR ABRAHAM LINCOLN’S UNPREDICTABLE FITS OF RAGE  

There’s nearly unanimous agreement among historians that Abraham Lincoln, the 16th President of the United States, was America’s greatest leader. Honest Abe, as he was affectionally called, served in the nation’s highest office from 1861 until his assassination in 1865. During that time of civil war, Lincoln’s guidance held the union together, and he worked towards the emancipation of slaves. But despite Lincoln’s reputation of calmness under stress, there was a dark side to him. Abraham Lincoln was known for his unpredictable fits of rage.

Abraham Lincoln was not a well man during most of his adult life. It’s documented that Lincoln suffered from what was then known as hypochondriasis—the 19th-century term for paranoia and melancholia. Today, he’d likely be diagnosed as having manic-depressive disorder or, at least, experiencing clinical depression. Lincoln’s symptoms included gastrointestinal discomfort, headache, fatigue, fever, chills, insomnia, anxiety, hypervigilance, forgetfulness, immense sadness or despair, and uncontrollable mood swings including maniacal laughter as well as those unpredictable fits of rage.

At one congressional debate in the 1850s, Lincoln lost it and grabbed an opponent by the throat, shaking him so violently that the man’s teeth chattered. In the beginning of his presidency, White House staffers feared Lincoln’s rath which seemed to come from nowhere. Remarkably, though, after five months in the Commander-in-Chief’s chair, Abraham Lincoln suddenly changed. For the rest of his days, he was the picture of calm and control.

It’s well known, historically, that President Lincoln was medicated for his ills. His main prescription was for a common-at-the-time pharmaceutical called Pilula Hydrargyri or Blue Mass. Blue Pills, as the drug was also known, were prescribed for a wide range of ailments from diarrhea to childbirth pain. And it was the go-to pill for treating melancholy.

Abraham Lincoln stopped taking Blue Mass, or Blue Pills, after five months in the Oval Office. He said they were “making him cross”. No doubt they were, as Lincoln was a changed man when he got off his meds. Let’s look at who this remarkable person was, his feats as President, and find out just what was inside those little blue pills.

Abraham Lincoln was born on February 12, 1809, in a Kentucky log cabin. His family were dirt-poor, and Lincoln had little formal education. He was kicked in the head by a horse when he was nine and nearly died. He also suffered serious injuries by being clubbed unconscious during a robbery, nearly severing a thumb with an axe, experiencing severe frostbite on both feet, and breaking an arm.

Abe Lincoln was an unusual-looking adult—tall and gaunt. He was 6’ 4” and weighed 150-160 lbs. Lincoln had a notably drooping eye and disproportionate limbs. Some speculate he had a rare genetic disorder called Marfan Syndrome which could have accounted for his deformities.

Although Lincoln had little schooling, he was far from uneducated. He was a self-taught man and a true life-long learner. He’d moved to Illinois in 1830 where he self-studied law and passed the state bar exam in 1836, setting up a practice in Springfield.

Politics called for Abraham Lincoln in 1847 when he was elected to one term in the U.S. House of Representatives. He was defeated for a second term and went back to practicing law. Lincoln became politically active again in the mid-1850s and gained fame with an outstanding performance in what’s known as the Lincoln-Douglas Debates.

Abraham Lincoln lost his bid for the Vice Presidency in the 1856 general election. Defeat didn’t stop Mr. Lincoln, and he was elevated to the Office of President of the United States of America in 1860. His official inauguration was on March 4, 1861. In two months, the American Civil War would break out.

Lincoln experienced extreme sadness and grief during his life. His beloved mother died when he was twelve. The same year, he lost his affectionate aunt and uncle. His first wife died unexpectedly, and two of the four boys he had with his second wife, Mary Todd Lincoln, died in their childhood.

Lincoln’s law partner, John Todd Stewart, described him as “an unfortunate and miserable man… the most striking picture of dejection I have ever seen.” Lincoln self-assessed in a preserved letter. It read:

I am now the most miserable man living. If what I feel were equally distributed to the whole human family, there would not be one cheerful face on the earth. Whether I shall ever be better I cannot tell; I awfully forbode I shall not. To remain as I am is impossible; I must die or be better, it appears to me. I have been driven many times to my knees by the overwhelming conviction that I had nowhere else to go.

John Todd Stewart is on record that Abraham Lincoln was prescribed Blue Mass for his depression as early as 1841 when Lincoln was thirty-two. It’s not known if this was daily for the next twenty years but Lincoln, himself in his diaries, recorded that he stopped ingesting the pills in August of 1861 at age fifty-two. This was right at the time Lincoln made the momentous decision to sign the Confiscation Act that seized Confederate possessions including slaves and when his most capable soldier, General Nathaniel Lyon, was killed in battle.

In sobriety, Abraham Lincoln executed his duties of the Office of the President in exemplary fashion. He became a figurehead of calm reason—a man of vision and calculation—who inspired others to fight on and win the solidarity of the union as well as being instrumental in freeing America’s enslaved. Tragically, The Great Emancipator was assassinated on April 15, 1865. The Gettysburg Address is one of his legacies.

It’s far more than a coincidence that Abraham Lincoln’s emotional condition improved, or stabilized, when he stopped taking the Blue Mass pills. That’s well recorded and was observed by all those working with Lincoln or folks being familiar with the man. This leads to the logical question of just what was in those little blue pills that were making President Lincoln sick.

The ingredients of Pilula Hydrargyri or Blue Mass pills were no secret. They were well-known back in Lincoln’s day. Here’s the recipe posted in Medical Histories of the Union Generals:

  • 33 Parts Mercury
  • 5 Parts Licorice
  • 25 Parts Althaea
  • 3 Parts Glycerine
  • 34 Parts Rose Honey

33 Parts Mercury? Hold on. Mercury is a heavy metal that’s toxic to human beings when ingested and metabolized by the system. According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), “Mercury exposure at high levels can harm the brain, heart, kidneys, lungs, and immune systems in people.”

All the symptoms Abraham Lincoln presented—gastrointestinal discomfort, headache, fatigue, fever, chills, insomnia, anxiety, hypervigilance, forgetfulness, immense sadness or despair, and uncontrollable mood swings including maniacal laughter as well as those unpredictable fits of rage—were consistent with side effects from mercury poisoning.

Here’s more information from the EFA about mercury:

Mercury is a naturally occurring chemical element found in rock in the earth’s crust, including in deposits of coal. On the periodic table, it has the symbol “Hg” and its atomic number is 80. It exists in several forms:

  • Elemental (metallic) mercury
  • Inorganic mercury compounds
  • Methylmercury and other organic compounds

Elemental (Metallic) Mercury

Elemental or metallic mercury is a shiny, silver-white metal, historically referred to as quicksilver, and is liquid at room temperature. It is used in older thermometers, fluorescent light bulbs, and some electrical switches. When dropped, elemental mercury breaks into smaller droplets which can go through small cracks or become strongly attached to certain materials. At room temperature, exposed elemental mercury can evaporate to become an invisible, odorless toxic vapor. If heated, it is a colorless, odorless gas.

Elemental mercury is an element that has not reacted with another substance. When mercury reacts with another substance, it forms a compound, such as inorganic mercury salts or methylmercury.

Inorganic Mercury

In its inorganic form, mercury occurs abundantly in the environment, primarily as the minerals cinnabar and metacinnabar, and as impurities in other minerals. Mercury can readily combine with chlorine, sulfur, and other elements, and subsequently weather to form inorganic salts.  Inorganic mercury salts can be transported in water and occur in soil. Dust containing these salts can enter the air from mining deposits of ores that contain mercury. Emissions of both elemental or inorganic mercury can occur from coal-fired power plants, burning of municipal and medical waste, and from factories that use mercury. Inorganic mercury can also enter water or soil from the weathering of rocks that contain inorganic mercury salts, and from factories or water treatment facilities that release water contaminated with mercury.

Although the use of mercury salts in consumer products, such as medicinal products, have been discontinued, inorganic mercury compounds are still being widely used in skin lightening soaps and creams. Mercuric chloride is used in photography and as a topical antiseptic and disinfectant, wood preservative, and fungicide. In the past, mercurous chloride was widely used in medicinal products, including laxatives, worming medications, and teething powders. It has since been replaced by safer and more effective agents. Mercuric sulfide is used to color paints and is one of the red coloring agents used in tattoo dyes.

Human exposure to inorganic mercury salts can occur both in occupational and environmental settings. Occupations with higher risk of exposure to mercury and its salts include mining, electrical equipment manufacturing, and chemical and metal processing in which mercury is used. In the general population, exposure to mercuric chloride can occur through the dermal route from the use of soaps and creams or topical antiseptics and disinfectants. Another, less well-documented, source of exposure to inorganic mercury salts among the general population is from their use in ethnic religious, magical, and ritualistic practices and in herbal remedies.

Methylmercury

When inorganic mercury salts can become attached to airborne particles. Rain and snow deposit these particles on land. Even after mercury gets deposited on land, it often returns to the atmosphere, as a gas or associated with particles, and then redeposits elsewhere. 

As it cycles between the atmosphere, land, and water, mercury undergoes a series of complex chemical and physical transformations, many of which are not completely understood. Microscopic organisms can combine mercury with carbon, thus converting it from an inorganic to organic form. Methylmercury is the most common organic mercury compound found in the environment and is highly toxic.

So, if mercury is primarily used for industrial purposes and is highly toxic in human consumption, where did the idea come from to make it into medicine and poison someone like Abraham Lincoln? No one seems to know who first thought of swallowing little blue pills made with quicksilver, but the practice has been around a long time. Literature from the early 1800s recommends the generic name Blue Mass as a treatment for dysentery, constipation, syphilis, gonorrhea, melancholia, worms, tuberculosis, toothache, and more.

Here’s a quote: To be fair, it was probably equally effective for all those diseases… which is to say not effective at all for any of them.

And here’s some mercury poisoning trivia: Hat makers often suffered from the same syndrome as Lincoln. Constant exposure to a mercury compound used to treat felt hats gave them violent mood swings, inspiring the Mad Hatter in Lewis Carroll’s Alice in Wonderland.

Blue Mass pills have been off the market for decades. (By the way, the blue color came from blue chalk that was used as a buffing agent to help bind the mercury to the other ingredients.) No pills were thought to exist that could be analyzed by a modern forensics laboratory to determine the exact mercury content, or weight in each pill, which could show how over-medicated (read that as over-intoxicated) someone like President Lincoln would’ve been.

That was until a retired physician and medical historian, Norbert Hirschhorn, dug into the Lincoln case. Dr. Hirschhorn and the Royal Society of Chemistry struck gold—actually, quicksilver—in a medical museum. There, in a nicely crafted wooden box, were two vials marked Pilula Hydrargyri. Inside were a bunch of little blue pills.

Dr. Bin Chen, Senior Applications Chemist at PS Analytical in Kent, England, carried out a test on the Blue Mass pills. He found each contained 33.6% mercury in ground amounts that could easily be absorbed into a human body. Every pill contained 750 micrograms of elemental mercury—far above the EPA’s long-term mercury tolerance of 21 micrograms for the human body to safely withstand.

Quoting Dr. Chen: To think the President was meant to take three pills a day, every day, for how many years… that is appalling. He would have been consuming nine thousand times over the safety limit.

If this were the case, and there’s every reason to believe it was true, then the President suffered from heavy metal poisoning. It’s no wonder Abraham Lincoln had unpredictable fits of rage.