Tag Archives: DNA

GENOMICS — THE FUTURE OF FORENSIC DNA PROFILING

A3Genomics is the scientific study of the molecular instructions encoded in your cells.  It maps your entire genetic structure. Till now, forensic science has focused on only identifying your cell’s nuclei signature — your inner DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and, to a degree, your outer miDNA (mitochondrial DNA) — not your genes. The old method of forensically profiling your biological fingerprint by DNA analysis is being replaced by a computerized 3D genome recreation of your entire being.

A17Genomics is a concept first developed in the 1970’s. It led to the Human Genome Project (HGP) being completed in 2003. The HGP was a massive international research venture that sequenced and mapped all of the human cell genes — together known as the genome. The HGP gave us the ability to read nature’s complete genetic blueprint for building a human being. Like you.

So what’s a genome?

A14A genome is the whole ensemble of your genetic material. It’s the molecular guide of your DNA, your chromosomes, and your genes that tells how to make your cells. It’s the instruction manual for your body. That book is your genome and the study of that book is termed genomics. It’s pretty much a math exercise. And it’s deadly stuff for identifying criminals with.

Let’s take a quick look at your biology.

A35Deoxyribonucleic acid is the chemical compound that contains the instructions to develop and direct your life as an organism. DNA molecules are made of two twisting, paired strands, often referred to as a double helix.

Each DNA strand is made of four chemical units, called nucleotide bases, which comprise the genetic “alphabet.” The bases are adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C). Bases on opposite strands pair specifically — an A always pairs with a T — a C always pairs with a G. The order of the As, Ts, Cs, and Gs determines the meaning of the information encoded in that part of a DNA molecule. It’s just like the order of letters determine the meaning of a word, only DNA is written out in a barcode locus.

Every single cell in your body contains a complete copy of the 3.2 billion DNA base pairs, or letters, that code your human genome.

DNA’s four-letter language contains information needed to build your physical body. A gene refers to the unit of DNA that carries the instructions for making a specific protein, or set of proteins, and there’s 23,000 genes in your genome code. Each gene directs an average of three proteins.

A11

If you could peer inside your cells, you’d see your genome contained in 46 tightly packed bundles of DNA — 23 came from your mother and 23 from your father. These DNA bundles, called chromosomes, provide instructions that enable a one-cell embryo to develop into a 100 trillion-cell adult. So, every time the human body produces a sperm or an egg, 3 billion DNA letters must be copied and packaged so they can be passed along to future offspring.

A31Humans come in many shapes and sizes, but we’re all very similar at the DNA level. In fact, the genomes of any two people are more than 99% the same. Still, the tiny fraction of the genome that varies among humans is critical when it comes to forensically identifying a particular individual. DNA variations are part of what makes each of us unique, but it’s in the genes that the real difference lies. They direct what you look like.

Okay. Enough of the biology lecture. How is genomics gonna catch some crooks?

It’s not just genomics. Science now has a great handle on how your DNA is formed and how your genes fine-tune your uniqueness. The problem has been in how to process a staggering forensic workload that has bottlenecked the crime labs and the courts — and how to put a face and a name to an unidentified DNA profile..

A26The answer lies in genomic computerization. The good news is that technological progress is being made faster than anyone ever dreamed possible. Now the labs are looking at your entire genome package for identification, not just at that little bit of nucleic or mitochondrial DNA which is dirty, volatile, and time-consuming stuff to process.

Advancements in computerized processing are allowing crime labs to build an entire picture of you as a suspect — not just an impersonal, academic graph of the matching points in either your biological evidence sample that you left behind at the scene, or your known reference sample that investigators obtained from you.

A2Think about how many cold cases there are where the investigators have a clear DNA profile of you as the perpetrator, but they have absolutely no clue what you look like. They have no idea whether you’re young or old, black or white, have green eyes or brown. They don’t know your hair color or texture. They don’t know if you’re tall or short. And, in some cases, they don’t know if you’re male or female.

Genomic profiling is going to change the game. Computers will speed it up. 

A25Illumina Corporation of San Diego is a world leader in Forensic Genomic technology. They’ve developed a process called Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) that can simultaneously analyze every locus-point in a traditional DNA barcode using less than 1 nanogram of a sample in a fraction of traditional turn-around time that it’s currently taking.

Illumina is also at the forefront of developing the new cornerstone of contemporary forensic science — being able to generate a physical description of the DNA’s donor based on their genome profile.

A22Think about the ramifications. It’s not only going to assist in solving current cases. It’s going to give a physical look at the perpetrators of cold cases. Identify found remains with no names. Help in sorting disaster victims. And make accurate aging estimations for missing children.

The speed and accuracy of forensic genomic profiling will have far reaching effect on the costs in the criminal justice system. Faster and higher rates of identification will remove more dangerous offenders from society and the reliability of their forensic identifications will result in less trial time. It will reduce investigator workload in chasing blind leads. And it will, undoubtedly, save lives.

A29I think we’re in a fascinating time, watching technological advancements in forensic sciences. Genomic profiling is a fantastic breakthrough. We’re close to the day when your tiny biological dropping at the scene of your crime will go into a machine, the button pressed, and not just will your virtual mugshot come out — it’ll build a full-color, 3D image of your entire person right from your molecules to your moles.

Yes, science has come a long, long way in understanding how your human genome instruction book is written.

God knows who wrote it.

BREAKTHROUGHS IN FORENSIC TECHNOLOGY

tech1Technology has made huge breakthroughs over the past thirty-five years that I’ve been around criminal and forensic investigation (CSI). Without question, the next thirty-five are going to bring mind-blowing advances. I’ve looked into my forensic crystal ball to come up with five things I think will be real by 2050.

But first… let’s look at the top five since 1980.

1. Computers

When I started policing, the PC was unheard of.

tech2The only computing system we had was a mammoth of a beast that filled-up many rooms at headquarters. CPIC, or the Canadian Police Information System, was in its infancy as was its American counterpart, NCIC or National Criminal Intelligence Center. Both systems are still around but, instead of having to phone to book appointments to use the system, the information now comes straight to the patrol cars or to a detective’s smart device.

Computers have affected every facet of forensic investigation.

Despite complex computerized analysis being fast and accurate, the routine is much easier. Report writing is far simpler – no more carbon paper to make multiple copies, no more white-out, and thank God for spell-check. Communications are instant with internet email and gone are the days of waiting for a report to show up in snail mail. Training is done through computerized simulation, sketching is replaced by computer-aided drawing, and administration is now done by the keyboard. Computers are what allowed the next four advances to occur.

2. AFIS – Automated Fingerprint Identification System

tech3The science of fingerprinting has been around nearly one hundred and fifty years, but the mechanism of storage and matching prints was cumbersome. Known prints from criminals used to be rolled in ink and stored on paper and the latent prints from crime scenes were lifted in powder were stored in plastic sheets. There was no effective system to easily match the two. Today, suspect prints are digitally scanned and stored in data bases. Latent prints are still lifted in conventional manners, but they’re then scanned and put into a search engine where they can be matched right from the crime scene.

3. Photography

tech4Today’s digital photography is a tremendous time-saver compared to the days of negative and image development. It’s instantaneous to share over the internet, even allowing an investigator to snap a digital photo in the field and email it to the other side of the world. Another facet of crime fighting is the incredible amount of mobile and stationary cameras that are out and about in society which capture movements of criminals before, during, and after events. Many crooks have gone down because they failed to realize they were on camera.

4. Education

tech5Today’s forensic investigators are far better educated than in the 1980’s. Much of that is due to the ease of which information can be shared. Where it used to take great blocks of time and huge resources to assemble courses and conferences, many agencies now use webinars and on-line presence to create ‘virtual’ classrooms. Education and sharing information are the jewels in crime-fighting.

5. DNA

tech13Deoxyribonucleic acid or genetic fingerprinting is probably the best crime-fighting tool ever developed. Today, thanks to the computer, the sophistication and expediency of DNA testing has led to it being commonly – and accurately – used in the majority of serious crime investigations. Many convictions have been secured on DNA evidence alone. Conversely, many innocent people have been cleared of suspicion due to elimination by DNA typing.

So that’s what happened over the past third century. Ever wonder what’s going to happen over the next third?

Well, I’m gazing into the crystal ball and predict five things.

1. Holograms

tech73-D technology is commonplace in movies and on TV. Many criminal prosecutions are already presented through computer-aided reconstruction to lay out the scene, bullet paths, vehicle motions, and blood-spatter patterns.

I see a day when virtual-reality holograms are imaged in the middle of the courtroom so the jurors can watch a total recreation of how the crime went down.

2. Brain-Scan Polygraphs

tech8Conventional polygraphs have only slightly evolved in three decades and that was by the replacement of the old ink-needle charts with laptop technology. The basics of polygraphy still depends on the ability of a skilled operator to formulate key questions and then interpret the subject’s involuntary body reactions – pulse, respiration, blood pressure, galvanic skin responses, and perspiration.

I see a day when brain mapping and analysis of how a subject responds under electroencephalography (EEG) and function magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) will replace the current polygraph. The technology is already here and research is underway towards its forensic application.

2. Laser Devices

tech9I think lasers have phenomenal potential in forensics. Currently, laser lighting is used to amplify fingerprint and tool marking evidence. It’s also used in ballistic matching where the old electron-scanning comparison microscopes are being replaced by laser/laptop examiners like the Bullettrax 3D which makes the peaks and valleys of a ballistic engraving show up like satellite ground mapping radar images.

I see a day when forensic investigators will map out a crime scene with hand-held laser devices to perfectly record information which will be transformed into hologram reproductions.

4. Ion-Sniffers

tech10Detection of ions through gas chromatography mass spectrometers has been around fifty plus years and is still used daily in crime labs. What’s missing are portable devices to assist in field searches of buildings, vehicles, boats, planes, and the great outdoors. Often investigators know exactly what they’re looking for – a firearm, explosives, contraband, or even a dead body – but the parameters of the search area turn it into the needle-in-a-haystack scenario.

I see a day when the ionic signature of the article(s) being searched for are dialled into the device and it zooms right into the location.

5. Satellite Tracking of Dangerous Criminals

tech11Over the past few decades we’ve got a better handle on controlling violent and prolific offenders through DNA profile banks and ankle bracelets of parolees. We’ve also had tremendous advances in satellite technology where smart-bombs are delivered down terrorist’s chimneys and GPS aps tell you exactly where you are on the planet. We have microchips in everything from our bank cards to our pet Schnauzers and there are more cell phones in Africa than people. What we don’t know is where the dangerous .001 percent of the population are and have been.

AB23479I see a day that we’ll ditch these guy’s rights. We need to protect the 99.999 percent of the population that’s at risk. Common sense will prevail and there’ll be court orders mandating satellite tracking chips being surgically implanted into dangerous offenders.

I’ll check back with you in 2050. It’ll be interesting to see what I’ve missed.

HOW DO YOU GET INTO CSI, THE CRIME LAB, OR THE MORGUE?

This guest post is by Kelly Elkins, PhD, a forensic scientist and author of Forensic DNA Biology: A Laboratory Manual.

Students ask me this all the time.

CSI 4I guess this makes sense. I am a college professor. I teach at one of the places that has a strong track record in forensic science education, research and post-graduate employment.

You might think there is an easy answer. But actually, the answer is complicated. The “forensic sciences” encompass many diverse specialties. Many require specialized training. So the real question for students is: what do you want to do?

Do you want to investigate crime scenes and collect evidence? Do you want to work in the lab? Do you want to analyze DNA evidence or fingerprints or firearms?

DNA 2You may be surprised to learn that all of these positions now require a solid education in a natural or physical science, like chemistry or biology or forensic chemistry or forensic biology. The Forensic Education Programs Accreditation Committee (FEPAC) has put their stamp of approval on some forensic science programs that meet their requirements.

Don’t worry if you don’t live in the U.S. There are accredited programs in Canada too and other programs world-wide. Most of the FEPAC-accredited programs are housed in Chemistry or Biology departments so you’ll learn the science with the rest of their majors. You will take specialized forensic science courses that will prepare you to work in the crime lab. For example, to work in the DNA Unit, your transcript must list biochemistry, molecular biology, genetics and statistics, among other courses.

Crime SceneBack to the crime scene. You just want to investigate crime scenes and send the evidence back to the lab? Great. You still need to know how the lab works and the analyses they perform so you don’t send them the kitchen sink if you don’t need to. So enroll in a FEPAC-accredited program just like your friends that aspire to work in the lab, and major in (forensic) biology or chemistry with them.

I always tell students I won’t place you in an internship in a coroner’s office or with a medical examiner if they don’t want to work with dead bodies.

CSI 7But, if you think this is something you’d like to do, try it out. If that’s where you are dying to work, you should major in (forensic) biology. Minor in chemistry. Or minor in criminalistics. Or even death investigation, if that’s an option. Take courses in anatomy and physiology, biochemistry, toxicology, and crime scene investigation. Apply for jobs as a death investigator or pathology assistant. These will all serve you well in your choice. If you later decide you want to perform the autopsies as the pathologist, you have the prerequisite education to continue further.

Do you want to be a coroner?

Dead Body 5You may need to run for office. In many states, you have to select a party affiliation and become (gasp) a politician. But don’t worry, the dead don’t care which you choose. You also need only a high school diploma or GED in many states. Of course, most of the people interested in the position have significant prior experience in law enforcement or forensic science. You just need to be willing to run the office, hire awesome staff to help you, make ethical judgments and make everyone in your city or county happy.

Do you want to be a pathologist?

PathologistThis is a not for the faint at heart. For this, you first need to take the MCAT. This requires you to lay out some cash and time to study for and take the test. After that, you can apply to medical school. For this, you need more cash and more time. Once you get in (that’s it, right ?!?), you need to study medicine for four years including specialized coursework and clinical rotations in all specialties, including working with living people. Finally, you graduate. Take your boards. Complete your residency.

That’s it, right?

Almost. You must now do a pathology fellowship. After toiling for more than a decade, you may now apply for positions as a pathologist or medical examiner.

Whatever you choose, Good luck!

Kelly ElkinsKelly Elkins, PhD, recently became assistant professor of chemistry in the chemistry department and professional Masters of Forensic Science program at Towson University in Towson, Maryland. Prior to that she was Director of Forensic Science and assistant professor of chemistry at Metropolitan State University of Denver in Denver, Colorado where she oversaw the FEPAC-accredited forensic science program, and internships and undergraduate research program in criminalistics. Her areas of research include low template or trace DNA recovery and quantitation and chemical forensics. Her research has been published in journals including the Journal of Forensic Sciences, Journal of Chemical Education, and Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education.

Forensic DNA BiologyKelly is also the author of Forensic DNA Biology: A Laboratory Manual, which was recently published by Elsevier Academic Press and is available on Amazon at http://www.amazon.com/Forensic-DNA-Biology-Laboratory-Manual/dp/0123945852/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1375391454&sr=1-1&keywords=forensic+dna+biology . She may be reached at kmelkins@towson.edu.